Robinson Crusoe

Parts 1-2
Part 1 Summary:
The narrator introduces himself as Robinson Crusoe. He was born in 1632 in the city of York to a good family. His father is a foreigner who made money in merchandise before settling to down and marrying his mother, whose surname is Robinson. His true last name is Kreutznaer, but has been corrupted into Crusoe by the English. There are two older brothers in the family; one died in the English regiment, and Robinson does not know what became of the other.

Crusoe's father has designed him for the law, but early on his head is filled with "rambling thoughts" of going to sea. No advice or entreaties can diminish his desire. His father gives him "excellent advice and counsel," telling him that only men of desperate and superior fortunes go abroad in search of adventures, and that he is too high or too low for such activities. His station is the middle station, a state which all figures, great and small, will envy eventually, and his happiness would be assured if he would stay at home. Nature has provided this life, and Robinson should not go against this. After all, look what happened to his brother who went into the army. The narrator is truly affected by his father's discourse, but after a few weeks he decides to run away. He prevails upon his mother to speak to his father and persuade him to allow one voyage. If Robinson does not like it, he resolves to go home and think of the sea no more. She reluctantly reports their conversation, but no headway is made, no consent given. About a year later, he is able to procure free passage on a friend's boat heading to London. Asking for no blessing or money, he boards the ship and leaves.
Misfortune begins immediately. The sea is rough, and Robinson regrets his decision to leave home. He sees now how comfortably his father lives. The sea calms, and after a few days, the thoughts are dismissed. The narrator speaks with his companion, marveling at the "storm." His companion laughs and says it was nothing at all. There is drinking that night, and Robinson forgets his fear of drowning. Within a few more days, the wind is behaving terribly, and then a true and terrible storm begins. Robinson spends much time in his cabin, laying down in fright. He sees nothing but distress, and is convinced he is at death's door. The ship is being flooded, and he is commissioned to help bail water. At one point Robinson faints, but is roused quickly. The water is coming too fast, so they board life boats. People on shore are ready to assist them, if they can reach land. The boats arrive at Yarmouth, and the magistrate gives the men rooms. They must decide whether or not to continue to London or return to Hull. His comrade notes that Robinson should take this as a sign that he is not meant to go to sea. They part in an angry state. Robinson travels to London via land. He is ashamed to go home and be laughed at by neighbors. Finally he decides to look for a voyage. He is deaf to all good advice, and boards a vessel bound for Guiana because he befriends the its captain. This voyage, save seasickness, goes well, but upon arrival the captain dies. Robinson resolves to take his ship and be a Guiana trader.
On a course towards the Canary Islands, they are attacked by Turkish pirates, who capture them and take them into Sallee, a Moorish port. Robinson is now a slave. His new master takes him home for drudgery work. The narrator meditates escape for the next two years. An opportunity presents itself when his master sends Robinson, along with some Moorish youths, to catch some fish. Robinson secretly stores provisions and guns on the ship. They set out to fish. Robinson convinces the helmsman that they will find fish further out. He goes behind one of the Moors and tosses him overboard, saying that he should swim for shore because he the narrator is determined to have liberty. Robinson turns to the other boy, called Xury, and says he must be faithful or be tossed as well. Xury resolves fidelity and says he will see the world with Robinson. They sail for five days, as the narrator is anxious to get far away. They land in a creek and resolve to swim ashore and see what country this is. For two days they are anchored there. They observe "mighty creatures" yelling on shore and swimming towards the ship. Robinson fires a gun to discourage them from swimming further. They are not sure what animal this is. Although the two are scared, they need water. Together they will go ashore, and either they will both live or both die. The land appears uninhabited. They are able to kill a hare-like animal for dinner and obtain fresh water. Robinson is sure they are on the Canary or the Cape Verde Islands. He hopes to come upon English trading vessels that will allow them to board. The two men remain in the creek. Together they kill a lion for sport as they pass the time. Xury cuts off a foot for them to eat. They begin to sail along the land in search of a river. Eventually they see the land is inhabited by naked black people. Robinson and Xury go closer to shore. The people leave food at the water's edge. They keep great distance from the two men. Another creature swims toward the boat. Robinson kills it, and sees that it is a leopard of some sort. The black people accept the killing happily, so Xury goes ashore for water and food. In the distance Robinson spies a Portuguese ship, but it is too far to make contact. They leave immediately, trying to follow the ship. Robinson fires a gun to get their attention. Joyfully, Robinson finds they will let Xury and himself board, and the captain does not demand any money from them. The ship is headed for Brazil.
Part 1 Analysis:
Defoe immediately introduces the major tension in his novel between adventure and security. Clearly in the view of the author it is not possible to achieve both of these things; you must choose. Defoe makes no secret of his opinion on the subject: security is indeed the correct choice. He demonstrates this painting a negative view of adventure: it causes both of Robinson's brothers to disappear, and it brings misfortune upon the narrator as soon as he leaves home. What is most crucial to note, however, is that adventure exists as something inferior only in relation to the lifestyle of the middle class. This will be the standard by which all other lifestyles are judged. It is a smart innovation on Defoe's part; books focused on the middle class very rarely. This definitely would have extended readership. We might see Robinson's father as the voice of the author, urging his "irreligious" son to be content with a contented life. He is also the voice of a larger society that believes in a type of predestination in lifestyles: by "Nature's decree," Robinson should not go on any voyages because he is neither rich nor poor. Robinson's initial comrade voices a similar argument when he wonders violently how such an "unhappy wretch" wound up on his ship. He appears to be superstitious of Robinson's presence because his sadness is not an acceptable reason for him to be making this voyage. That certain activities are restricted to certain classes of people in certain states of mind indicates how regimented the society is. A modern day reader can admire the narrator in the very least for attempting to break out of these expectations. His voice is factual and tuned to details. Most importantly, it is an individual voice. Robinson speaks for himself and himself alone.
How successful Crusoe is, however, is a matter of dispute. Primarily, the tone of the narration is flatly morose and fatalistic. The narrator is always prefacing his descriptions with comments about what is eventually going to happen: "Had I had sense I would have gone home," "It was my great misfortune that I did not ship myself as a sailor," etc. The reader understands from the start that the story will not work out as Robinson had initially hoped. Alongside any good things that happen in the moment, we are waiting for the impending doom to strike. It is difficult for us to have any hope when Robinson himself has none. Throughout this first part he constantly wavers as to whether or not he made the right decision in running away from home, which is due to the fact that his personality is simply wavering and uncertain. The image of the bobbing sea, constant only in its changes, correlates well to Robinson's persona. His sense of agency comes in spurts of movement. At first he decides to run away, but confesses the plan to his mother. Having seen that he will not be able to get his father's consent, he steals away secretly on the voyage to London. The reader wonders why he bothered to try convincing his parents in the first place. His decisive actions are brief at best. As soon as he is on the ship, he becomes ill, fearful, and regrets leaving. As soon as the weather lightens up, he is happy. Robinson's impressionable youth is apparent in this inability to stay rooted to one emotion or decision. His refusal to go home because he does not want to suffer embarrassment and laughter from the neighbors gives new meaning to the cliched cutting off the nose to spite the face. Robinson is all too willing to take on roles such as sailor and trader with which he has no experience. Clearly he does not know who he is, or who he is supposed to be. We cannot ever be sure that he has faith in himself. This lack of confidence paints a very timid picture of the narrator. It is a picture, though, of who Robinson used to be. The disparity between the narrator and the character he describes is crucial to note. At many moments we cannot help thinking that Robinson has truly made a mistake in leaving; but it appears that the narrator agrees with us sometimes.
Yet as the first part continues, Robinson begins to adjust somewhat. Instead of relying completely on the intelligence and strength of others, he begins to think for himself and show more decisive agency, hatching the scheme to escape from slavery and throwing the Moorish youth overboard. This is his turning point. He is not as wimpy and delicate as he first appears. The killing of the lion for pure enjoyment betrays violent tendencies that would not have been expressed in a middle class life. At the sight of unfamiliar "monsters" in the water, Robinson does not faint as he did at the prospect of bailing water on his first voyage; rather, he picks up his gun and takes decisive actions. The narrator demonstrates intelligence in keeping Xury as a companion. He can admit to himself that he will need help in his search for a European ship. The manner in which these two work side by side is touching and unprecedented: racial bias does not seem to affect their relationship thus far. Xury automatically seems to call Robinson "Master," and he willingly runs errands for the narrator, but for the most part they are equals. Upon exploring the new land, Robinson himself says that they will both go and die together if one must die at all. Out on the sea is the semblance of proprieties, but these two follow their own laws.
Part 2 Summary:
The sea captain is extremely kind to Crusoe. He buys Robinson's boat, all of his worldly goods, and Xury. At first the narrator is reluctant to part with his servant, but the captain promises to free him in ten years if he has turned Christian. As Xury finds this agreeable, Robinson allows the exchange. The voyage to Brazil goes well. The narrator is recommended by the captain to the house of an "honest man." This man lives on a plantation, and Robinson lives with him for a while. Seeing how rich the plantation owners are, he resolves to become a planter, and begins purchasing much land. Once Robinson is planting, he becomes friendly with Wells, his Portuguese neighbor. They slowly increase the diversity of their stock. At this juncture Robinson regrets having sold Xury. He is in a trade that he knows nothing about, and he has no one to talk to but the neighbor. If he had listened to his father, he would have been comfortable at home. Still, he is sustained by his augmenting wealth.
The captain returns and tells Robinson to give him a letter of procuration so that he can bring the narrator half of the fortune he has left with the English captain's widow. He returns not only with money, but with a servant. Robinson is now infinitely richer than his neighbor, and purchases a "Negro slave" and a "European servant." Each year he grows more tobacco and thrives. But he is not completely happy with this life: "Nature" and "Providence" stir him so that he is not content, and winds up throwing himself into the pit of human misery once more. Having made friends during his four year residence in Brazil, he has spoken much of voyages to Guinea, where one can buy desirable items, but especially Negro servants for plantation work. It is a highly restricted trade, though. Three merchants come to him and say they want to buy the Negroes privately for their own plantations. They ask if he will join and manage the trading on Guinea. Ignoring the inner voice of his father, Robinson wholeheartedly agrees to go. He makes the investing merchants promise they will look after his plantation if he "miscarries." He boards the ship on the first of September, eight years after he ran away from home.
Good weather lasts for a while, but then it turns stormy. One man dies of sickness; a little boy is washed overboard. After 12 days it is clear that the ship will not make it due to leakiness. They decide to try and make it to Africa, where they can get assistance. For 15 days they sail, and another storm hits. There is land in the distance, but they are afraid it might be inhabited by savages who will eat them. The ship crashes into sand, and the sea powerfully washes over it. They use their oars to edge closer to shore, but their hearts are heavy because they know as soon as they get there, the ship will be dashed to pieces and they will be overtaken by the undercurrent and drowned. They have to at least try and swim. Once they jump into the sea, Robinson has some good luck and is helped to shore by a wave. He runs as the sea continues to chase him. The water fights him, but he manages to land safely on shore. Robinson thanks God for his deliverance. He looks around, sees nothing to help him, and runs about like a madman until he falls asleep in a tree. The next day is calm and sunny. The narrator now sees that if they had stayed on board, the ship would have made it to land without being dashed. But the rest of the company is dead, and Robinson grieves. He swims out to the ship and takes a few pieces to build a raft. On this he loads the provisions, everything from food to weaponry. Robinson looks about the island for a good place to live and store his supplies. There are no people, only beasts. A tent serves as his lodging. He makes a number of voyages to the ship in the next few weeks and brings back everything salvageable. In order to guard against possible savages, the narrator moves his tent near a cave with steep sides. He sets up a home with cables and rigging. A hammock is his bed. He makes a cave behind the tent to serve as a cellar. Discovering goats on the island, Robinson goes out daily to kill his food. This leads to his making a cooking area. When desolation threatens to overwhelm him, he forces himself to remember the dead company, and how much better off he is. At the very least he has housing and guns to kill food.
Part 2 Analysis:
Generally, we see that there is a major sense of class superiority. Robinson has a "European servant" and a "Negro slave" on his plantation. We are supposed to assume that one is better than the other. The basis of such distinctions is rooted in religion. Defoe introduces what is perhaps the most important background component to the story--the role of Christianity, particularly as it connects to relationships with other people. What appears to be a friendship between Robinson and Xury is turned into a common master-slave relationship when Crusoe decides to part with him so that Xury will be Christian in ten years' time. The fact that he is willing to forsake his companion in this manner indicates how strongly the Christian faith is entrenched within him. Essentially it is the driving force behind this decision. The business-like friendship is further emphasized when the narrator procures a plantation in Brazil. Astounded by the hard work, he wishes dearly for "his boy Xury." The diction of this line demonstrates a possessiveness toward Robinson's companion. Ironically, he only longs for his company when there is back-breaking labor to be done. It appears that Xury's un-Christian status degrades him in the eyes of the narrator and the author. Lack of Christian doctrine and teachings becomes a symbol of ignorance and inferiority. When the captain offers to purchase Xury, he is truly playing the part of a savior, at least in Defoe's mind. Modern day readers cannot help but see this as slightly sarcastic: slavery is not often a device of deliverance. However, the author probably did not intend this reading. Xury is happy, even grateful to forsake his freedom; we must believe for the purposes of this novel that Christianity is the proper walk of life.
"Deliverance" is a word that appears throughout the book. It is introduced to us in this part as the action of Providence. The author seems to define Providence as an ephemeral being, a personification of Christianity's ideals that has the power to decide the fate of its followers. Crusoe uses this concept to justify the course of events that befall him. It is responsible for the kind sea captain who takes Robinson abroad and delivers him to South America, for Robinson's extremely good fortune in purchasing a plantation and amassing wealth. In many respects, he is still a child, depending on the kindness of strangers. Providence, together with Nature, is the temptation that leads him out of his safe, rich haven and onto another sea voyage. Once again, the sea becomes a symbol of trouble and turmoil. Each time Robinson ventures into the ocean, he is punished; first slavery, now a shipwreck. This sentiment is heightened by the fact that the rest of the crew perishes when they might have survived. It is as if the narrator is singled out to suffer. Once more, he laments that he did not heed his father's advice. Yet he is not yet willing to take entire responsibility for his decisions. The will of Providence becomes a convenient escape from the simple fact that Crusoe chooses to be on this island through his own mistaken reasoning and greediness. Plantation money was not enough for him; he needed to try and engage in the risky enterprise of slave-trading. It is ironic that the Christian religion condones such human oppression. The book winds up commenting on religion without intending to do so. Again, this is the interpretation of a modern reading. Still, the narrator's decisive actions in the face of hardship are admirable and surprising. We wait to see whether he will prove to be dexterous enough to manage his fate.
Parts 3-4
Part 3 Summary:
After having been there about 12 days, Robinson decides to keep a calendar by marking a large wooden post. He is very happy to have some pen and paper, three Bibles, two cats and a dog, all from the ship. The work upon his home is tedious without proper tools, but he improvises. After all, he has nothing else to occupy his time. To comfort himself the narrator makes a list of pros and cons about his shipwreck. Ultimately he decides to be joyous because God has delivered and provided for him. He is raising a wall around his home. After about a year and a half, he has rafters and a thatched roof. Robinson realizes there is nothing he wants that he can't make: thus he creates entrance and exit to his home, table and chairs that he might truly enjoy writing and reading. The narrator begins a journal, in which he documents his initial misery, and all of his tasks and duties that he performs in acclimating to the island. A scheduled routine forms for his hunting and building. Every animal he kills, he keeps the skins and hangs them as ornaments. Robinson goes about the business of making chests to store his provisions, as well as tools such as a wheelbarrow. The cave/cellar appears to be finished when a quantity of earth falls from the ceiling; Crusoe repairs this. He builds storage shelves to create "order within doors." A more solid fence begins to form around his dwelling. The narrator takes frequent walks and discovers pigeons, a very good meat. The darkness is his greatest annoyance; he decides to make candles from the tallow of slaughtered goats. While emptying sacks from the ship, Robinson shakes out come pieces of corn. After the rains, husks of barley appear. The narrator is astounded and thanks God. He manages to plant some rice as well.

Robinson builds a ladder to the entrance of his home. While in his cave/cellar, an earthquake occurs and much of the walls crumble. He is frightened and prays profusely. It rains violently. He resolves to move his tent a bit to prevent untimely death from other earthquakes. Pieces of the shipwreck wash up on shore. Robinson gathers them to use on his new home. He finds a large tortoise that provides a good meal. Soon he falls ill and has chills for many days. The narrator sleeps restlessly and has nightmares about dark men coming to kill him. He reflects once more on how good God has been to him, and assumes that this sickness is a punishment for not realizing this goodness sooner. He regrets not listening to his father. Robinson prays what he refers to as his "first prayer." He makes a homemade remedy in the form of rum, tobacco and water. When his sickness grows worse he wonders what he has done to deserve this. His conscience answers that he has led a "dreadful misspent life." Robinson takes up reading the Bible. He becomes better.
Part 3 Analysis:
One of the most prominent features in this part is the contradictory sense of Robinson's behavior--civilization meets the wild. Essentially he oscillates between the roles of civilized, middle-class businessman and primitive nature lover. This brings up the theme of isolation: good or bad? Earlier enslavement experiences have not taught Crusoe, so now he is to be enslaved in another way. Defoe means for us to view the island as a completely distinct world, of which Crusoe is the colonizer. In many ways he is stunned initially, having been suddenly thrust into a very unfamiliar situation. Still, he is level-headed and calculating enough to realize that he must ransack the wrecked ship for provisions. This demonstrates his ingenuity. Although he has not seen other signs of life, he immediately sets out to hide himself and all his possessions from plain view. Crusoe has his wits about him and intends to recreate the European world on this island. But he can only do so by embracing the surrounding materials offered by nature: the grass turns into a thatched roof, the mud is sculpted into a cellar, the tree doubles as a house. This mock European world is literally hewn out of the land with bare hands. The civilized and the primitive thus merge symbolically. We have arrived at a new level of detail in the novel, a deeper type of realism. The account of working is an innovation for the time, and the journal is an extension of the realism.
The fact that creating a calendar and keeping a journal are some of the narrator's most notable first tasks demonstrates his desire to replicate the sense of time present in his former world. The idea is somewhat ridiculous when we first examine it. After all, keeping track of time is only necessary when in a world that imposes expectations based on time. Robinson's choice, however, is a choice to stay as close to the civilized world as he possibly can; to remain sane. Defoe plays with the tracking of time. He inserts statements such as "in one and a half years I had a thatched roof." Then he proceeds to "retell" a story that was never exactly told by recounting the details of that time period. This manner of story-telling is useful because it allows the author to be extremely detail-oriented, which maintains a feeling of veracity, while cramming a long period of time into a few pages. It also provides a stream of consciousness tone. With the exception of a loose timeline, there is not much of an order to Robinson's tale. It is interesting to note that there is not much of a difference between the diction of the "journal" section of this part and the rest of the text. If anything, the journal is less reflective than the regular text. We might see the whole novel as a journal, but this is only possible because of the tone.
Crusoe's spoken reason for the calendar is to keep a Sabbath day. We observe here the beginning of Crusoe's struggle to come to terms with his fate. It is a battle that will continue until the end. The list of pros and cons that he draws up indicate his desperate need to believe that Providence has designed his shipwreck for the best. He cannot afford to believe in a concept of bad luck or poor planning on his part. As long as the narrator can place trust implicitly in something more powerful than himself, he will remain optimistic and unafraid. Religion becomes a psychological crutch for him. Therefore he thanks God profusely for his deliverance. When he reads the Bible, he becomes less sick. Christianity is a metaphorical healer of body and spirit. To begin his evolution towards fulfillment, he must begin ill. He seems to identify with his father at these moments.
Part 4 Summary:
It takes some weeks for Robinson to recover his full strength. He marvels at this deliverance from sickness. More serious reading of the Bible commences. The narrator now looks at his past life with complete horror. His thoughts are directed to a "higher nature." The rainy season is dangerous to his health, so he spends little time walking about. Crusoe's habitation is set; he feels that he wants to explore the rest of the island. When the weather improves, he goes about and sees many meadows. He also finds some tobacco growing. In the woods there is fruit growing in great abundance, and a spring of fresh water. Robinson tries to being fruit back, but he is gone so long it spoils. He resolves to try again. Returning to his home, Crusoe finds that some of his grapes have been trod upon. There must be wild creatures thereabouts. He hangs the remaining grapes to dry them into raisins. Robinson loves the wilder part of the island so dearly that he resumes his thoughts of a new habitation, and decides to simply build another one and have two homes: a "sea coast house" and a "country house." He finishes in time for the next rainy season. His cats are breeding with wild cats on the island, so he is forced to kill some of them, that his food supply is not entirely diminished. The year anniversary of his arrival is unhappy. He prays again to God.
He has learned the rainy season from the dry season, and decides to plant crops of rice and corn. The first crop is a good one, so Robinson extends the arable land. He busies himself with the farming and with making finer household items, like baskets. He moves frequently between his two homes. His greatest desire at the moment is for a pipe. On an exceptionally clear day, he spies a line of land, but he cannot be sure where it is. He is sure, however, that the inhabitants are cannibalistic savages. He discovers more animals on his rambles around the island. Many times the narrator sleeps outdoors, in trees to protect himself. When he comes home, however, he is always very happy. He has tamed a parrot and a young goat, who follow him endlessly. The two year anniversary arrives, and it is still solemn, but with much more joy in Robinson's heart. His desires in life are completely altered. He decides he can be more happy in this existence than in his previous one. Scripture reading is done daily and methodically. The narrator finds that his crops are being eaten by birds. He shoots one and uses it successfully as a scarecrow. The next goal is to try and make bread. His parrot Poll now talks.
Robinson makes some very good pots and jars. He then forms a stone mortar to beat the corn into meal, and a sieve to dress it. Over hot embers he bakes the batter and gets corn bread. This new technique leads to an enlargement of the barns, to hold more corn.
Part 4 Analysis:
The isle is a place of reflections, and justification of fate continues. The reader repeatedly observes the narrator marveling at the course of events and attributing all of the goodness to Providence and God. Strangely enough, he fails to notice that much of the wonderment comes about because of his own hard work--figuring out how to make the corn bread is actually a large accomplishment, and a credit to Crusoe's diligence and intelligence. However, this self-deceit acts as another psychological trick. In essence it steers Robinson's perspective from the negative towards the positive. If he can look upon the corn bread as a gift rather than a product of hard labor, he can be more grateful for its existence. Every little amenity that Crusoe finds is treated in this manner. The grapes are "fine," the raisins "rich." They make Robinson feel blessed, and are emblems of a charmed life. We can extend this idea to the narrator's general outlook on his solitary life. Robinson examines his past life and is "absolutely horrified" with himself. The diction is a bit extreme, but illustrates the mindset of our main character. If he can convince himself that he is living a more wholesome life on this island, he can be happier now than he was in his life in his former world. The island is paradoxical, because it simultaneously becomes a haven and a threat. It will overwhelm and conquer Crusoe if he does not make it his paradise. The psychological tricks are survival tactics. We can see that gradually, he is becoming more callused. He kills the cats when they are too numerous, and he no longer give his food a second thought--he eats goats and turtles with relish.
Yet as Robinson speaks of how distinct this new life is from the indulgent one he has left behind, he seems to work awfully hard to recreate the indulgences. The fact that he has two residences is highly comical. Even more so is his manner of classifying them: "country house" and "sea-coast house." Apparently in his mind, the narrator is still the wealthy businessman from Brazil. Whether he lives in a house of cement or mud, he maintains the familiar standard of material excellence. Robinson clearly wants to see himself in the role of master-ruler. He keeps pets to have beings subservient to him. The hard work he puts into raising crops and figuring out weather patterns are a means of creating a more leisurely life down the road. A large portion of his time is spent in exploration of the island. Indeed this is the substitute for the extensive traveling Crusoe would have done on the sea. His excessive ramblings, however, reveal that his wandering spirit has not changed. Crusoe is deeply fascinated with what is wild and untamed. His only real fear is of savages who may or may not be on the island. In spite of that, he seems to enjoy taking risks, sleeping outside in unknown places. Whether this is intelligent or not is really not a matter of concern--the narrator is a living example of the clichÈ "you can't teach an old dog new tricks."
Parts 5-6
Part 5 Summary:
Robinson is growing curious about the land on the other side of the island. He believes from there he might spot a mainland and obtain escape. Yet he does not think about falling into the hands of savages. The narrator wishes for Xury and the boat they sailed. He resolves to try and repair the wrecked ship's boat, but it sinks repeatedly. He then decides to build his own boat. Crusoe is unsure as to how he will get the boat off land, but decides to worry about this later. In retrospect this is referred to as "preposterous method" of work. The boat is well-made, but Robinson is unable to get it to the water due to its weight. The only way is to build a canal to the ocean, which will take a long while. The fourth anniversary comes, and Crusoe observes it with respect, marveling that there is no wickedness here. Ironically, all the money he has is worthless--he longs for a tobacco pipe or a handmill. He reflects upon the goodness of Providence, and spends much time remembering important dates in his life.

Robinson's clothes have begun to wither. He manages to use the skins of creatures he has killed to make a "sorry shift." The skins keep him very dry in the rain, so he decides to make an umbrella. He also makes another boat, small enough that he can get it to the water. In the sixth year of his "reign or captivity," he sets out on a voyage around the island. The current is strong and sweeps him away from the island. Crusoe begins to fear that he will not be able to return. Gradually the wind changes, and the narrator immediately goes back to shore, drops to his knees, and thanks God. He is able to reach his country house by nightfall. He is terribly frightened to hear a voice calling his name, asking where he is, until he sees it is the parrot Poll. For the next year Robinson lives a quiet, sedate life. He perfects his carpentry skills and is able to make a wheel tool to aid in his building. His powder supply is decreasing, so he begins to set traps to catch the goats and have his own flock. Eleven years have past. The goats provide him with milk, from which the narrator is able to make butter and cheese. He now dines like a "king among his subjects." Still the narrator longs to sail around the island, but he is afraid of being swept away. Thus he decides to have a boat on either side of the island. One day going to visit his boat, he spies a man's footprint near it. Robinson is thunderstruck with fear: it must be a savage from nearby lands. He wonders if there are on the island, if it is the mark of the devil. His religious hope is abating. But the narrator resolves to let God decide--if he is not to be delivered from the evil, so be it.
Part 5 Analysis:
One step up and two steps back. We see immediately that Robinson has come to appreciate the truly simple things in life when he directly states that money is of no use to him; that he would rather have a pipe. He is conservative with his gun powder, so he takes to building up a flock of goats. Crusoe is now a farmer in all respects. He is no longer daunted by a lack of goods. What he does not have, he can make. Certainly his attitude is admirable. This might appear to be a complete renunciation of worldliness, but it is not so. The narrator always views himself in a worldly manner. After he has inhabited the island for a number of years, he begins to talk about his "reign," "sovereignty over the isle." The diction indicates a type of delusional regression--Robinson is not trying to recreate his former world, but a world that never existed, in which he is no longer middle-class but a powerful ruler. It is important to note that Defoe uses governing words that connote unrestrained rule, as opposed to words cooperative rule. The narrator basically claims to have bent the primitive surroundings to his will, which is why he deserves the mastery over them. When he eats amongst his many pets, he sees himself as "a king dining amongst subjects." While this is somewhat comical, we realize that this is another psychological survival tactic. It helps Robinson to not feel so alone, and that his existence has at least the purpose of maintaining the animals around him.
These sentiments of confidence, however, are shaken by the voyage mishap around the island. Finally we see the beginnings of fear in Robinson. He persists in trying to make a sea voyage. As his other encounters with the sea demonstrate, this is not a good idea. The sea essentially represents all of the misfortune that is waiting to befall Crusoe. This time, he seems to heed the warning when he draws the boat ashore without having completed a lap of the island. He "thanks God" for another deliverance. The island has truly become his home, and he is very afraid of leaving it and never seeing it again. It is important to consider that the idea of escape is mentioned very briefly here, and without too much enthusiasm. The minute the idea crosses his mind, misfortune almost befalls him. Thus Robinson's devotion to Providence becomes even more strict, and thoughts of escape are firmly banished for the time being. The anniversary of his shipwreck becomes a sort of solemn holiday to honor Providence. Crusoe is learning to accept life as it comes, without trying to interfere and take too much control over his fate. The discovery of a footprint is the strongest test of his fortitude. The simplicity of the language in light of the startling discovery is disconcerting. As soon as there is the possibility of other humans, there is a loss of peace with nature, a loss of faith. This place is no different from the real world that he from which he has enjoyed an escape. The narrator suspiciously watches every step he takes, and runs without reason. His homes are called "castles," sturdy places of protection. We might see this as a subtle comment on the theme of colonization, that humans ruin the natural serenity of uninhabited places. Religiously, Crusoe believes he might be facing the Devil. His unbreakable strength is evident as he says that he will leave the Devil to Providence.
Part 6 Summary:
Robinson begins to think that he might have made the footprint himself; this makes him bolder and he goes out again to milk his goats. But he walks with incredible fear, always looking behind him. He concludes that since he has not seen anyone in fifteen years, the people must come from abroad in boats. He wants to hide himself even more, so he reinforces his walls and plants groves of trees that develop into a forest in six years time. He moves his goats to a more remote location and divides them into two groups. Crusoe makes his way to the shore opposite to the one on which he landed, and finds it littered with human bones. His fear of cannibalistic savages is confirmed. He thanks God that he was not eaten and that he is distinguished from these people whom he sees as abhorrent. Gradually the narrator becomes comfortable again, but he is cautious about firing his gun, and prefers to tend his livestock, so he does not have to hunt. Aside from this, he sets his mind to other tasks, such as learning to make beer.
Crusoe is not fearful but vengeful. He longs for the chance to hurt these savages and save the victims. Several times he imagines the proper mode of ambush and attack. He picks the exact sniper spots. A daily tour commences to look out for approaching ships. He then steps back, however, and wonders if it is his place to engage in violence with people who have not done him any personal harm, and who are most likely killing prisoners of war. Robinson debates with himself and concludes that he should leave them to the justice of God. He continues his secluded life and is once more thankful for his deliverance. Occasionally he is frightened by strange sounds, and he is still cautious. But the narrator tells himself that if he is not fit to face the devil, he could not have lived twenty years alone on the island. Time continues passing. Robinson spends time with his parrot and his various animals. One day, he is stunned to see a fire on his side of the island--the savages are back. He sees they have two canoes from a lookout point, but he does not dare approach them. When the tide returns they leave. Crusoe is horrified at the human remains on the shore. Once again he wants to destroy the savages when they return. When the twenty-fourth anniversary passes, Robinson spies the wreck of a Spanish ship drifting towards the island. His heart is lightened by the thought that there might be a survivor. He hastens to his boat, gathers provisions, and rows out to the wreck. Aside from a yelping dog, he finds no one living. Crusoe takes the dog, along with some liquor, clothing and money, back to the island with him.
Part 6 Analysis:
Crusoe's imagination continues to be overactive. Clearly his faith in Providence only goes so far, because he is not content to merely sit by and let himself be discovered by other humans. The frenzied manner in which he tries to hide himself is somewhat alarming. The reader wonders whether or not our main character is about to lose his mind. However, he proves that he is more or less stable when he continues going about his daily movements on the island, even though he moves very cautiously at all times. When he suspects the presence of others on the island, the narrator speaks of being haunted by an "evil conscience." While Defoe never elaborates on this statement, we can speculate that its meaning is rooted in the fact that if other people are around, Robinson can no longer be entirely self-contained. His actions, behavior, etc. are subject to scrutiny and judgment. This is the most significant way in which his island paradise can be ruined by the presence of other people. The appearance of that footprint is the rock that shatters Crusoe's window of sovereignty. Initially he tries to convince himself that the print belongs to him, but he is forced to admit that his foot does not fit.
The eventual arrival of the "savages," as Crusoe calls them, introduces a savagery into Robinson's own heart, causing a slight break down in his system of religious beliefs. He refers to these people as "wretches" whom he "abhors," and thanks God profusely that he has the fortune to be more educated than these terrible people. Metaphorically the savages are as much a threat to the narrator's spirit as they are to his body. To him they are the Devil incarnate. However, Crusoe starts to become obsessed with wreaking havoc on these people, his own Crusades. They have done him no personal harm, but he wants to make it a personal mission to exterminate them. Again this is part and parcel of creating a world that never existed--Robinson pictures himself as the gallant hero who sweeps in grandly to save the prisoners. He seeks glory for himself, not for God. Although he has mostly convinced himself that he lives a superior life, there is a quiet desperation for human companionship. That is the only explanation for why Crusoe risks himself to go out to the wrecked Spanish ship to look for survivors. Saving prisoners from cannibals would have the same end effect. He is very lonely--Defoe rarely uses quotation marks, but he does around the phrase "Had there been but one!" This is Robinson's refrain when he sees there are no survivors, and we are meant to notice it.
The manner in which he patrols the island and plots ambushes is reminiscent of a wartime general. Clearly there is inner violence that is struggling to come out. The narrator wrestles with his inclinations, trying to tell himself that the savages are best left in God's hands, that he should decide their proper punishment. Yet the moment he sees human remains on the shore, he is so incensed that he vows to wage war upon them. It seems God is no longer capable of handling them. This vow can be analyzed in two directions: as an example of Robinson's terrific devotion to the Christian religion, or as an indication of his extreme pride in himself and his beliefs. Defoe probably intends Robinson's behavior to illustrate both of these. It is evident that the belief in Providence cannot be a passive one. Robinson must be active, at all times.

Parts 7-8
Part 7 Summary:
The narrator resumes his quiet steady life. He always thinks upon the goodness of Providence. But he is haunted by dreams of savages. In this time the narrator has thought that upon saving the life of a captive or a savage himself, he might be able to make him his companion and obtain escape from the island. Only now does he realize how lonely he has been. Crusoe waits patiently, and after a year and a half he is rewarded by the appearance of five canoes on shore. Against twenty or thirty men, he wonders how he will fight. He spies two "miserable wretches" being pulled from the boat. As one is beaten and cut open for the feast, the other manages to run away, towards Robinson. He fetches his two guns and goes to save "the creature's" life. He manages to shoot the two men pursuing the prisoner. The prisoner then begins to bow to the narrator and rest his head on his foot. He is amazed that his enemies are dead. Apparently he has never seen a gun. Together they bury the bodies. Robinson gives the man bread, raisins and water, who then falls asleep. He is a good-looking youth, about twenty-six years old, but he does not speak English. Robinson manages to tell the man that his name is Friday, and that he should call the narrator Master. When they go out and reach the graves of the two men, Friday makes signs that they should eat the bodies. Crusoe becomes very angry and leads away the docile Friday. He still hungers for flesh, but the narrator makes him understand that he will be killed if he eats other men. Friday is dressed in his master's image. He becomes a most devoted manservant. The relationship is very loving. Robinson seeks to make Friday civilized with everything from eating habits to religious teachings. He teaches him how to use guns and roast goats. Crusoe is having a wonderful time.

A year goes by in this pleasant way. Friday learns broken English. He manages to tell Robinson that they are near the Caribbean, and that they would need a big boat to get back to his homeland. The narrator begins to teach about the Christian God. Friday does not understand why the Devil cannot be beaten if God is stronger. Robinson makes him understand that all must be given the chance to repent and be pardoned. Explaining this makes Crusoe even more full of faith because he clears up his own ideas. Friday tells him that there are white men living peaceably on his native land. When the weather is clear, Friday rejoices at seeing his homeland in the distance. Robinson worries that he might return there and resume his old habits. Thus he is jealous. But Friday assures him that he only wants to return so that he can teach the others. He says that Crusoe would have to come with him, though, or he would not be able to leave. He cannot even bear for Crusoe to send him to the continent first--they have lived in harmony for three years. Together they manage to build a big boat. Robinson sets the adventure for the post-rain months of November and December.
Part 7 Analysis:
The most significant aspect of this chapter is the manner in which Friday is received by the narrator. Crusoe is still hungry for blood, and he gets his "vengeance" by killing two of the savages. He then proceeds to look upon Friday as a "creature" whom he will care for, giving him water, food, and clothing. The use of this word is somewhat degrading. It certainly indicates that Friday is a person of color. The fact that Robinson does not even try to learn Friday's actual name is testimony to the European supremacy theme that runs through the book. Crusoe has changed in appearance and occupation, but not intrinsically. He grants Friday his name as he would to any kind of pet. Thus Friday becomes, more or less, a little dog who follows Crusoe around. He is dressed in the image of his "master," and becomes a "manservant," willingly yet against his will at the same time, because he understands no English. Saving Friday gives the narrator the chance to play God and be in control of something concrete. He is glorifying his religion and himself by saving a life. Animals can only be "subjects" in a minimal sense. The appearance of Friday will allow Crusoe to live out his role as ruler of the island. He is more than a little power hungry. Even when he learns that inhabited land is not too far away, he goes about preparing for the voyage almost reluctantly. He is jealous when he believes Friday might rather go home than be with him. There is no real evidence of excitement to leave the island. The reader can speculate that this is due to a desire to maintain his solitary post of control over the island and over Friday. Perhaps he is even afraid to rejoin civilization.
In any case, the relationship between the two men is touching. Like Xury who came before, Friday is exceedingly devoted to his master, and very eager to be like him. Robinson is so happy living with Friday because he now has someone whom he can teach; specifically, he teaches religious doctrine. Friday is a justification for slavery--the institution exists so that savages might become good Christians. Ironically, Friday poses difficult questions to his master about why the Devil even exists. It is important to note that Robinson does not fully answer the questions. Comically enough, however, he prides himself after lecturing Friday, because he now feels that his beliefs are more solid than they were. The banishment of Friday's religious beliefs is akin to the colonization theme. We might see Robinson as performing a moral colonization on his dedicated servant. Whether this is good or bad, we cannot say. It is certain, however, that Robinson and Friday have a mutual need for one another.
Part 8 Summary:
Before Friday and Robinson can make their journey, three canoes arrive on the island. Friday panics. Robinson provides him with some rum, and they gather their weapons. Crusoe is not worried; they are "naked, unarmed wretches" who are subservient to him. The savages have prisoners. As Friday and Robinson approach, they are eating the flesh of one. A white-bearded man of European descent is a prisoner. The narrator is horrified and enraged, for he thought those men lived peaceably with Friday's people. Against nineteen men Friday and Crusoe wage battle, Friday always copying the moves of his master. In the chaos, the prisoners are freed. One of them is a Spaniard. The narrator enlists his help in shooting his captors. Together the three of them manage to kill most of the savages. The remaining ones run to two of the canoes and hastily row away, never again to return to the island. In the third canoe another man is founded, bound and gagged. Friday is ecstatic--it is his father. The reunion is joyous, and the narrator is very touched. They give the prisoners bread and water. Friday and Robinson make them some beds. Crusoe is very happy that "his island is now peopled," and he is "rich in its subjects." He considers himself the rightful lord. Talking with the Spaniard, Robinson learns that more of his men are living with the savages, but in peace. The narrator would like to join these Europeans, but he fears being a prisoner in New Spain and being sent to the Inquisition. The Spaniard assures him this would not happen. He is so impressed with Robinson's island that he wants to bring the rest of his men there to live. Everyone works to increase the livestock and crops in preparation. Finally the Spaniard and Friday's father are sent back in the canoe to gather the men.
As Friday and Robinson await their return, they spy another ship close to shore. It appears to be an English boat. Some men row to the island. Three of them are prisoners. The seamen are running about, trying to explore this strange place. Robinson dearly wishes that the Spaniard and Friday's father were here to help fight. While the seamen sleep, Crusoe and Friday approach the prisoners, who see them as God-sent. They learn from one that he is the captain of the ship, and his crew has mutinied. They want to leave him with the first mate and a passenger to perish. Robinson says he will try to save them on two conditions: that they pretend no authority on the island, and that if the battle is won, that they take Friday and himself to England passage-free. It is agreed. They are able to surprise everyone on land, killing some and granting mercy to those who beg for their lives. Crusoe tells the captain of his life on the island. The captain is visibly moved. Next they want to recover the ship. On the water they hear shots. With the aid of a binocular-type instrument, they see another small boat of men approaching. The captain says only a few can be trusted; the chief organizer of the mutiny is in the boat. Robinson marshals his "troops," consisting of Friday and the prisoners. They wait to start the battle.
Part 8 Analysis:
The plot becomes tangled at the end of the novel, with many new characters. Why the author waits so long to wrap up Crusoe's time on the island is not clear. We can see this chapter as an extension of Crusoe's imagined world, in which he is a powerful sovereign. Now, however, imagination blurs with reality, for Robinson truly is taking on the role of heroic leader. He does plan the attack on the savages, and the rest of the men listen to him dutifully. Defoe wastes no time in changing the terminology referring to the captured men from "prisoners" to "my people" in the mind of the narrator. A label such as "the Spaniard" becomes "my Spaniard." It is certain that everyone under his gaze is added to his group of subjects, which had previously consisted of Friday and the animals. The narrator states that he is pleased because the island is peopled and because he has "an undoubted right of dominion." This is a rather strange sentiment to express in the line of battle--no fear is seen at all. Robinson does not even really express much concern for the prisoners. Besides providing an account of how he feeds them, Crusoe spends most of his time glorifying his sense of control over people and events. As the number of "subservient" beings increases, his preoccupation with power grows stronger and worse. This does not make him extremely likable, but Defoe means for us to excuse this attitude and attribute it to a hunger for human contact that has gone somewhat haywire.
The excessive need for power demonstrates just how much Robinson's motivations and sense of agency have been altered during his life on the island. Before, we observed great meditations on the will of God, and Crusoe questioned how he was to behave to best act out that will. At this point, there are no real references to what God would want Crusoe to do: the entire battle against the savages takes place with a single reference to a higher power, when the narrator tells Friday to let bullets fly "in the name of God." We cannot be sure how sincere the remark is, but there is a good deal of evidence that lets us assume that Crusoe has forgotten his religious origins in some respects. When he frees the Spaniard and Friday's father, they look upon his as "God-sent." Rather than correct them or view the statement as sacrilegious, Robinson seems to take pleasure in the idea. His absolute authority over the men suggests a mental construction of divinity. Religion is more or less a means of achieving a powerful attitude. Crusoe acts like a leader; therefore the men treat him like one. In spite of this appearance of confidence, Robinson still seems to fear leaving the island because he is scared to fall under the control of someone else. There is more than a little prejudice alive within him. He is not entirely willing to trust the Spaniard because he is Catholic; he fears that the savages on the mainland. will eat him. It is not until an Englishman arrives that the narrator feels comfortable leaving the island and placing himself in the hands of another. The crew who mutinies are essentially white savages; they need to be conquered because they do not heed God.
By far, the most touching moment in the novel is the reunion of Friday and his father. It is the only scene in which affectionate emotions are unrestrained and expressed freely. The tone of the passage, which entails Robinson observing the two men embracing, betrays a bit of wistfulness. Crusoe is observing the reunion/reconciliation that will never be able to take place between his own father and himself. He seems to realize that this is his own fault--the beginning of deeper maturity. Still, Friday does not return with his father. He is devoted to Crusoe above everyone in the world.
Part 9
Part 9 Summary:
The boat of men lands on shore. They examine the first, broken boat. Shots go off to try and find the other crew members. Robinson and his army wait for a while. Just as the men are going to leave, the narrator bids Friday and the first mate to holler from an area of rising ground within his sight. The men run back eagerly. Two stay in the boat. Crusoe and the others surprise them and quickly get them to join their side. The other men are looking for the calls. Friday and the mate lead them astray until dark. They return to the boat and are stunned when they find the other two men gone. In the midst of their surprise Robinson and the army attack. Two men are killed outright. The captain tells the rest to surrender by order of the governor, Crusoe. Arms are laid down and the men are rounded up as prisoners and divided up. Some are taken to the goat pasture, some to the cave, where the first prisoners lay. Except for the worst of the crew, they all pledge their undying devotion to the captain. In the guise of the governor's assistant, Crusoe tells them that if they mutiny or go back on their word, they will be killed. The captain goes out with his men in a boat and is able to reclaim his large ship. He kills the head of the mutiny, and they hang his body from a tree on the island. The captain immediately hands over the ship to Crusoe. Crusoe embraces the captain as his deliverer. He dresses in new clothing from the ship and poses as the Governor. He addresses the untrustworthy prisoners, and tells them they can either stay on the island or return to England and be hanged. They choose to stay on the isle. Robinson takes time to show them where all his amenities are. He and Friday leave on the ship with the rest of their little army.

Robinson arrives in England thirty-five years after he left it. He finds the old Portuguese captain in Lisbon and is able to get in contact with his old plantation partners. He finds he is very wealthy and successful. He pays the Portuguese man and the widow who was his trustee very well for all the kindness they have shown him. He sends his two sisters in the English countryside some money. Crusoe thinks of going to Brazil, but decides he could not bear the rule under the religion of Catholicism. Thus he resolves to sell the plantation and settle in England. To get to England from Portugal, Robinson decides not to sail but to go by land. The journey is treacherous. They are almost attacked by wolves. The guide becomes ill. At one point Friday must fight a bear. Happily enough, they are successful and arrive unscathed in Dover. Robinson eventually marries and has three children. When his wife dies, he takes a voyage with his nephew to the East Indies. There he sees that his island is faring well, the Spaniards having arrived at the behest of Friday's father and the first Spaniard who landed on the isle. There are women and young children as well as men. Crusoe looks in on the inhabitants of the island from time to time. He is always on a voyage.
Part 9 Analysis:
This chapter brings us to the long-awaited fairy-tale conclusion. After crossing a myriad number of obstacles, Crusoe reaches wealth and security. He treats generously those who have helped him, and in short lives a model life. In short, there is a justification of returning to middle-class life. It seems a bit far-fetched in some respects, but we can indulge Defoe. Before this return can happen, though, Robinson's pioneer dream world must reach fruition and he must fully conquer the dangerous forces that are present on the island, thereby safeguarding his religious sensibilities. Robinson is more fully in the role of leader than ever before. The manner in which he is constantly observing before acting illustrates learned patience--the impulsive tendencies are gone. He choreographs strategies but never loses consciousness of his position. It is important to note that he only engages in battle for the captain when it is assured that he will always have authority over the island. When the mutinying crew are finally beaten and captured, the narrator is able to fully live out his fantasy by referring to himself as the "governor" of the isle and having everyone openly acknowledge him as a ruler. Religion has completely exited the battle scene. It is clear that this is a fight between men, for the sheer purpose of control over men. There is no glorification of God. Interestingly enough, the word "deliverance" still appears a number of times. This time, however, it is mostly in reference to human resources as opposed to divine ones. Robinson and the captain call each other "deliverers." Their destinies are altered by one another, not by any sort of Providence. Thus humans become more powerful and capable.
Even after the "escape" from the island, traveling continues to be perilous. It is much to Crusoe's credit that he refuses to travel to England by sea. The fact that the journey by land is fraught with many disasters seems to reveal a predetermined propensity for Robinson Crusoe to encounter misfortune each time he strays from the middle class existence into which he was born. Once in England, his life proceeds peacefully and uneventfully. Somehow this is not enough, for the narrator eventually sets out for the sea once again. Upon seeing his island become a thriving settlement, he is inspired to keep traveling, perhaps in the hopes of starting another such settlement. A placid existence in England will not ever glorify Crusoe enough to keep him there. Therefore, he must leave. There are no other options for him to pursue. Whether this is an adventuresome spirit or a foolhardy one, we cannot really say. But we would wish Crusoe the best in any case.