essay writing final copy

Spoiler:

[2010]

Moayad Alshara

2010

Essay Writing

Handouts on Essay Writing

- The form of essay is as follows:

1- Introduction. (An introductory paragraph)

2- Body. (The developmental paragraphs)

3- Conclusion. (A concluding paragraph)

-Thesis statement: It is the sentence that contains the central idea, an expression of an attitude, an opinion, or an idea about a topic.

The Characteristics of Thesis Statement

1- It should be expressed in a complete sentence; not in a phrase.

2- It should express an opinion, attitude, or idea about some thing.

3- It shouldn't express a fact.

4- It should express only one idea about a topic.

5- It is more general than a topic sentence.

The Characteristics of the Introductory Paragraphs

1- Introductory paragraphs should contain the thesis statement (at or near the end).

2- Introductory paragraphs should introduce the topic.

3- Introductory paragraphs should indicate generally how the topic is going to be developed.(discuss, causes, effects, reasons, examples, classify, describe, narrate, or explain).

4- Introductory paragraphs should be inviting and interesting and they should entice the readers to continue reading the entire essay.

** Four Basic Types of Introduction:

There are four ways of introducing the topic of the essay in the introductory paragraph. These are:

1- The 'Turnabout': In which the writer begins his introductory paragraph with a statement contrary to the actual thesis. In other words the statement written is in sharp contrast to what is really meant.

2- The 'Dramatic Entrance': Here the writer begins the introductory paragraph with a narrative, descriptive, or dramatic example related to the topic.

3- The 'Relevant Quotation': Here the writer begins his paragraph by a quotation related to the topic of his essay.

4- The 'Funnel': In this way the writer arranges his in a certain way that they progress or mover from the general to the specific.

* A Key word appears in the first sentence and reappears in the thesis statement.

The Developmental Paragraphs

1- The developmental paragraphs are the core of the essay.

2- They range in number from 2 to 4. They may exceed this number.

3- They explain, illustrate, discuss or prove the thesis statement.

4- Each developmental paragraph discusses one aspect of the main topic.

5- The controlling idea in the developmental paragraph should echo the central idea in the thesis statement. It must be relevant to the main idea of the thesis statement.

For example:

Thesis statement: My country has some beautiful sights. The main topic of the essay is "sights in my country," and the central idea is "beautiful." The controlling idea would be the synonym of the central idea as; "charming, attractive, wonderful, fantastic, lovely …etc. or it might be the same word used in the central idea.

6- They should be coherent and unified. Sentences need to be coherent and the sequence of thoughts should be maintained among the developmental paragraphs by the use of transitions as the paragraph ends with a transitory sentence which can be picked up at the beginning of the next paragraph.

7- Each developmental paragraph expresses one aspect of the thesis statement which might be made as a question and the answers of which would be the aspects or topics of the developmental paragraphs.

8- Developmental paragraph may also develop causes, effects, steps in a process, types, examples, points of comparison and contrast and reasons.

The conclusion

1-The concluding paragraph is used to finalize the discussion.

2-A conclusion can restate the main points discussed. It can restate the subtopics discussed in the developmental paragraphs briefly.

3-It should be brief.

4- It can restate, in different words, the thesis.

5-It shouldn’t bring up or tackle with a new topic.

The Outline

- A good outline makes unified and coherent paragraphs.

- An outline is the structure around which the details and explanations are organized. Supporting details can be words phrases.

The outline maybe like this pattern:

Thesis statement

I. First developmental paragraph’s topic sentence.

A .Identify the support. (example)

1-Additional details . ( if any )

2-Additional details ( If any )

B. Another details or example about this paragraph.

II. Second developmental paragraph’s topic sentence.

A. Support

B. Support

And Soon

III- Conclusion

The Example essay

Choice of examples

-The chosen examples must be representative and they should fairly support thesis statement .They should vary and cover variety of areas.

- The number of examples must be sufficient.

-In example essay, examples cam be organized according to time, familiarity, and importance.

- There should be coherence between the developmental paragraphs and this can be achieved in connecting the paragraphs in two ways:

a-By using transitions and expression.

b- By the repetition of key words and phrases.

-Some transitions used to introduce example (First developmental paragraph): take for example, one example of, one area of …., first, consider …, to begin with, etc.

- Transitions used in the second developmental paragraph. (Another example of, an additional example, second, next….etc)

-Transitions used in the last development paragraph: if the example is the most significant or important, it should be indicated in the beginning of the paragraph.

(Still another example of, third, finally.

The most significant or interesting example, the most important example of, etc)

The Comparison and Contrast Essay

-It is better to restrict the points of comparison to 2-4.

-Points of comparison must be significant and they should support the central idea.

-In comparing two similar things the focus should be on the differences.

-In comparing two dissimilar things the focus should be on the similarities.

-Two patterns of organizing the comparison and contrast essay:

1-Pattern A (point -by- point) 2-Pattern B (all of one /all of the other)

-In pattern A, the topic, the point of comparison, is broken down into two parts to make the comparison. It is used for complex topics, whereas pattern B, in used for very limited or simple topics.

1-Transition used to indicate similarity: (similar to, like)

2-Translation used to indicate differences: (different from, in contrast to, compared with, unlike)

- (But and yet) are used to indicate the opposite of what was said.

3-Transitonal expressions between sentences: (between two independent clauses) such as; In addition (to), moreover which should be preceded by either semicolon or a period. Also should be set off with comas.

-Additive transitions ( first , next , besides , in addition , moreover , furthermore , then , also…etc. ) are used to indicate chronological order , to number or list examples, or to add information .

Transition to indicate similarity :{ likewise, similarly, in the same way}

Transition to indicate differences: {on the other land, conversely, however, in contrast, and on the contrary which means that the two ideas being expressed cant both be true, also means no, it isn’t and it can be placed by in fact.

The Classification Essay

- Use only one principle of classification in an essay.

- Types of principles of classification :

1- Degree

2- Chronology

3- Location

-The principle of classification should be comprehensive.

- More than (2) groups should be in the essay.

- It is used for analyzing topics.

- Each developmental paragraph discusses one category.

- When discussing the category inched the following points:

1- Identify the group

2 Describe or define the category.

3- Give example.

4- Distinguish the second category from other categories the second developmental paragraph.

- Identifying the categories organizes the essay.

-Introduce the categories by mentioning the name of the groups.

- Use the same structure in all the categories. It should be expressed or identified in a clause.

- Transitions used to introduce categories : ( additive transitions, first , next , last , finally , in addition to )

The Cause-and-Effect Analysis Essay

· This kind of essays is used for attempting to understand the relationship between the events or the reasons or causes that cause (d) something to happen.

· In analyzing effects, we consider the results of some action.

· The relationship among the events is causal.

· Multiple causes can produce one result.

· Each cause is to be explained in one paragraph.

· Causes may not causally be related to each other (called factors); but all are related to the effect.

· In discussing the causes of equal significance, arrange them according to the order of familiarity, or of interest (from the less to more interesting)

· Arrange the causes according to importance, with the most important the last, if they aren’t of equal significance.

· The causes are related to each other when certain conditions exist.

· Causes that directly precede the effect are called immediate or direct causes, and those that are further removed in time (not direct) from the effect are called remote or indirect causes.

· Begin the paragraph with the immediate and proceed with the remote, or with the less important to the last important if causes are not of equal significant.

· Thesis statement can briefly state the causes, or it may express the most significant cause.

· Analysis should be logical.

· A cause may have multiple effects.

· Effects can be unrelated to each other.

· Organize effects paragraphs according to the order of importance.

· Begin the discussion with the immediate then continue to the remote effects.

· The thesis statement of effect analysis essay can have a stated central idea.

· In the causal chain causes and effects are linked.

· Use the dramatic entrance or relevant quotation technique (effect →cause / cause → effect)

Cause Expressions

· Transitions in phrases should be followed by a noun (i.e. because of, as a result of).

· Expressions in sentences (i.e. caused by, results form).

Effect Expressions

· Cause, result in.

· (So, for) are coordinating conjunctions used as transitions.

· So indicates results, whereas For indicates cause.

· Transitional expressions between sentences are preceded by either a period or semicolon, not a comma, and followed by a comma.

(Thus, therefore, consequently, as a result, for this reason). All of these transitions indicate result.

The Argumentative Essay

The purpose of the essay is to convince or persuade.

-Arguments based logically on an opinion that can be proved true or wrong by supporting evidences.

-Argumentative thesis takes one side of an issue.(It should not be strongly persuasive.)

-Beware of the readers (convince them) by assuming the disagreement with them.

-Don’t attack readers; address them logically, objectively and respectfully.

-Consider others’ opinions so as to know how to deal with their reasons.

-Understand what points need to be argued.

-Formal logical reasoning is of two kinds: inductive and deductive.

-Inductive refers to the process of examining particular details and arriving at a conclusion based on that evidence.

-Deductive refers to the process of arriving at a conclusion about a particular case based on a generalization; from general to specific.

-The logic of deductive argument can be checked by breaking down the argument into its syllogism.

-Initial generalization is called the major premise (both parties agree on).

- Specific case is called the minor premise, and the resulting statement is called the conclusion.

-induction is a thought process, while deduction is used to argue.

-Begin your argument at a point where you and your opponent agree.

-Minor premise needs to be proved. It is what you have to assume and establish.

- Consider the following points to avoid being illogical when breaking down the deductive reasoning process:

1-The major and minor premise must be true if the conclusion is to be valid.

2-The major and minor premise must be set up to follow the correct logical structure.

3-The terms in one premise must be used some way in the other premise.

-Use any type of organization and support it by reasons.

-Developmental paragraphs must show the progression of your logic from the major premise to the conclusion.

-Consider the following points while planning the argumentative essay:

1-It should introduce and explain the issue or case.

2-It should offer reasons and support for them.

3-It should refute opposing arguments.

4-Concede the opponent's valid points.

5- The conclusion should logically flow from the argument.

-Organizing the argumentative essay as follows:

1-Interoduction: introduce the problem in one paragraph by explaining, supporting and giving background information.

2-Reasons: one paragraph for each reason. (2-3 reasons at least)

3-Refutation.

4-Conclusion.

COHERENCE

GOOD WRITING MUST BE COHERENT, THAT IS, ONE IDEA MUST FOLLOW LOGICALLY AND SMOOTHLY FROM THE PREVIOUS ONE. A number of ways to achieve the coherence noted earlier..

1-By the repetition of key words, synonyms, and pronouns.

2-By the use of coordinating conjunction and correlative conjunctions.

a. The coordinating conjunctions (AND, BUT, OR, NOR, YET, AND SO) join two independent clause and are usually preceded by a comma.

For example: We went to the game, but we did not get good seats.

b. The correlative conjunctions (NOT ONLY……BUT ALSO, EITHER…….OR, NEITHER……NOR, BOTH……….AND ALSO) join two independent clauses.

For example: Not only do we object to what he said, but we also object to how he said it.

3-Subordinate clauses: Subordinate clauses (adverbial, adjective, and noun clauses) use a subordinating conjunction at the beginning of the clauses to join it to an independent clause. Subordinate clauses effectively show the relative importance of the two sentences. Use the following kinds of subordinate clauses:

a. Adjective clauses with (how, whom, which, that, whose, when, and where)

i.e.: The boy whose father is a doctor sits behind me in class.

b. Adverbial clauses of time with (while, as, when, whenever, before, until, as soon as, since, from the moment that):

i.e.: From the moment that I saw her, I was infatuated.

c. Adverbial clauses of comparison – contrast using (while and whereas):

i.e.: Maria is interested in dancing, whereas Sonia is interested in gymnastics.

d. Adverbial clauses of concession using (although, though, even though),

i.e.: Although nuclear power is dangerous, it is necessary to provide us with enough electricity to meet our needs.

e. Adverbial clauses of purpose using (so that):

i.e.: We arrived early so that we could get a good seat.

f. Adverbial clauses of condition using (if):

i.e.: If the pump breaks, you will need to go to the service station.

g. Adverbial clauses of cause using (because and since):

i.e.: We went to the concert because we were curious.

Because we were curious, we went to the concert.

h. Adverbial clauses of result using (so/such………that):

i.e.: The letter was so illogical that I could not understand it at all.

4-Transitional words and phrases. For the most part, transitional words and phrases are attached to the beginning of a sentence and are preceded by a period or semicolon. They do not really join two sentences together, but indicate the relationship between the two sentences. NOTE THE RELATIONSHIP THAT THE TRANSITIONS DENOTE:

ADDITION

Also

Furthermore

In addition to

Besides that

EXAMPLE

For example

For instance

To illustrate

As an example of

CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER

First last

Second finally

Next

After that

CONCLUSION In conclusion to conclude Finally in summary To sum up To summarize
COMPARISON-CONTRAST Likewise however Similarly on the contrary In the same way different from Similar to in contrast to Like on the other hand Conversely In contrast to

Process Analysis Essay

A process is a series of actions leading to an expected or planned outcome. There are two types of process essays: those that instruct or direct and those that explain or analyze. Directional process essays tell how to do something. For example, a directional process might explain how to find an apartment. The purpose of this type of essay is to clarify the steps in the procedure so that the reader can re-create the steps and the results. An informational process essay explains or analyzes a process - it tells how something works, how something happened, or how something is or was done. For example, you could explain how World War II began or how hurricanes form. The informational process essay has a purpose different from that of a directional process essay. It s main purpose is to inform, explain, or analyze. The reader is gaining an understanding of the process; he or she does not necessarily expect to be able to recreate the process.

Although process essays that explain or instruct have different purposes, they can be developed by using the same pattern of development and organization.

Planning The Process Analysis Essay

When you are planning your essay, you should bear in mind the following advice:

Be aware of the audience . When you are planning a process essay, your first question should be "What do my readers know about my topic?" Identifying the audience is important in deciding what to include and what to omit in the essay. For instance, suppose that you decided to explain how to paint a room to an inexperienced audience - people who never before painted a room. You would have to be very specific and assume that the readers know little or nothing about the process. However, if your audience is made up of professional or experienced painters, you would have to approach the assignment differently. In this case, you would probably explain a special technique that your audience may not be aware of.

In general, though, you should assume that readers know little about the topic being explained but have the same general knowledge you do. For instance, it can be assumed that most people know what a paintbrush is, but it cannot be assumed that your readers know which kind of brush is best to use with a certain type of paint.

Order the steps chronologically . Since a process paper describes a sequence of steps leading to some preconceived end, it is important that the steps be discussed in the order that they occur; in other words, the steps should be arranged in chronological order. This principle of organization is the same as the one used for [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]. In a process essay, ordering ideas chronologically is vital, especially if readers are to be able to re-create the process. The only time to break from chronological order is when you explain some unfamiliar term or give some word of advice or caution.

Since process analysis essays are organized chronologically, like [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط], many of the transitional devices are used: sequence markers and adverbial clauses of time. To achieve even more coherence in

essay writing final copy

essay writing final copy

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